The sceptre shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh come; and unto him shall the gathering of the people be. Genesis 49:10
The term “scepter” refers to their tribal identity and the right to apply and enforce Mosaic Laws and adjudicate capital offenses: jus gladii. It is significant that even during their 70-year Babylonian captivity (606-537 b.c.) the tribes retained their tribal identity. [Josh MacDowell, Evidence that Demands a Verdict, pp. 108-168.] They retained their own logistics, judges, etc. (Ezekiel 1:5,8) The term “Shiloh” was understood by the early rabbis and Talmudic authorities as referring to the Messiah. [Targum Onkelos, Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, and Targum Yerusahlmi, The Messiah: An Aramaic Interpretation; The Messianic Exegesis of the Targum, Samson H. Levy, Hebrew Union College Jewish Institute of Religion, Cincinnati, 1974.] The Hebrew word shiloh should be rendered “whose it is,” that is, the scepter will not depart from Judah until He comes to whom it belongs.
Sceptre Departs
In A.D. 6-7 A.D., King Herod’s son and successor, Herod Archelaus, was dethroned and banished to Vienna, a city in Gaul. Archelaus was the second son of Herod the Great. The older son, Herod Antipater, had been murdered by Herod the Great, along with other family members. (It was quipped at the time that it was safer to be a dog in that household than a member of the family!)
After the death of Herod (4 B.C.?), Archelaus had been placed over Judea as “Entharch” by Caesar Augustus. Broadly rejected, he was removed in A.D. 6-7. He was replaced by a Roman procurator named Caponius. The legal power of the Sanhedrin was immediately restricted and the adjudication of capital cases was lost. This was normal Roman policy (Josephus, Wars of the Jews, 2:8. Also, The Jerusalem Talmud, Sanhedrin, folio 24.)
The scepter had, indeed, been removed from Judah, but Shiloh had come. While the Jews wept in the streets of Jerusalem, a young son of a carpenter was growing up in Nazareth. He would present Himself as the Meshiach Nagid, Messiah the King, on the very day which had been predicted by the Angel Gabriel to Daniel five centuries earlier (Dan 9:24-27).
Friday, February 19, 2010
Thursday, February 18, 2010
Intertestament Timeline Summary
Session 4 Notes
INTERTESTAMENT PERIOD
1. PERSIAN PERIOD (445 BB - 333 BC) - Rule mild, Jews rebuilt their temple, Diaspora occurred. Synagogues were set up because of distance to temple. These were places of worship and instruction. No sacrifices were offered at the Synagogue.
2. GREEK PERIOD (333 BC - 167 BC) – The Persian Empire was destroyed by Alexander the Great. After his death the empire was divided. Antioch Epiphanes tried to exterminate the Jews. Desecration of the temple and bloodshed caused the uprising of the Jewish nation.
3. MACCABEAN UPRISING (167 BC - 63 BC) - Jews launched guerrilla type warfare and defeated Syria. The Jews then expanded the empire. Pharisees and Sadducees appeared during this period.
4. ROMAN PERIOD (63 BC - ) - Feuding Hasmoneans appealed to Rome for help. Legions sent under Pompey which overran Palestine killing 12,000 Jews.
It is during the Roman occupation of Jerusalem that the New Testament was written.
NOTE: Each world power contributed to the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ:
1. Persian Period - Diaspora (dispersion), Jews scattered throughout the nations. The nations became
familiar with the Jewish religion.
2. Greek Period - Greek language became universal, even spoken by the Jews.
3. Roman Period - Roads were built. Relative peace and safety in travel.
(Galatians 4:4,5) "But when the fullness of the time was come, God sent forth his Son, made of a woman, made under the law, To redeem them that were under the law, that we might receive the adoption of sons."
INTERTESTAMENT PERIOD
1. PERSIAN PERIOD (445 BB - 333 BC) - Rule mild, Jews rebuilt their temple, Diaspora occurred. Synagogues were set up because of distance to temple. These were places of worship and instruction. No sacrifices were offered at the Synagogue.
2. GREEK PERIOD (333 BC - 167 BC) – The Persian Empire was destroyed by Alexander the Great. After his death the empire was divided. Antioch Epiphanes tried to exterminate the Jews. Desecration of the temple and bloodshed caused the uprising of the Jewish nation.
3. MACCABEAN UPRISING (167 BC - 63 BC) - Jews launched guerrilla type warfare and defeated Syria. The Jews then expanded the empire. Pharisees and Sadducees appeared during this period.
4. ROMAN PERIOD (63 BC - ) - Feuding Hasmoneans appealed to Rome for help. Legions sent under Pompey which overran Palestine killing 12,000 Jews.
It is during the Roman occupation of Jerusalem that the New Testament was written.
NOTE: Each world power contributed to the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ:
1. Persian Period - Diaspora (dispersion), Jews scattered throughout the nations. The nations became
familiar with the Jewish religion.
2. Greek Period - Greek language became universal, even spoken by the Jews.
3. Roman Period - Roads were built. Relative peace and safety in travel.
(Galatians 4:4,5) "But when the fullness of the time was come, God sent forth his Son, made of a woman, made under the law, To redeem them that were under the law, that we might receive the adoption of sons."
The Silent Era
Session 4 Notes
At the close of the Old Testament, Jerusalem is ruled by Persia. Alexander the Great defeats the Persians in 333BC and establishes Hellenism (Greek Culture and the Greek language) as a unifying force for that part of the world. The stage is being set for the coming Messiah. When Alexander dies, his generals quarter the kingdom, but Hellenism still grows and remains the dominant influence. This is why we have the Hebrew Scriptures translated into Greek, which is called the Septuagint and why we have the New Testament written in Greek. Greek was the unifying, common language of the people. Even though during this time, Rome conquers this part of the world, Hellenism still thrives.
Throughout the four hundred Silent years, there are militant Jews who attempt to revolt against foreign rule and make Jerusalem and the surrounding area of Judea an independent country. These militant groups were the Maccabeans and the Zealots. Some of their accounts are recorded in the apocrypha. The Maccabean revolt itself involved many battles, in which the Maccabean forces gained notoriety among the Syrian army for their use of guerrilla tactics. After the victory, the Maccabees entered Jerusalem in triumph and ritually cleansed the Temple, reestablishing traditional Jewish worship there and installing Jonathan Maccabee as high priest. A large Syrian army was sent to quash the revolt, but returned to Syria on the death of Antiochus IV. Its commander Lysias, preoccupied with internal Syrian affairs, agreed to a political compromise that restored religious freedom. The Jewish festival of Hanukkah celebrates the re-dedication of the Temple following Judah Maccabee's victory over the Seleucids (Syrians).
Two primary religious groups emerged at this time: the Pharisees and the Sadducees. They were caught up in promoting a religious "legalism" of external adherence to rules while overlooking inner motivations and attitudes. The Pharisee were so concerned about keeping the Law that they made laws about laws about laws; it is a practice known as fencing the Torah. They forgot the heart and purpose of the Law. The Pharisees are orthodox, conservatives, and fostered separation between themselves and secular society. The Sadducees were more liberal and consisted of Jerusalem aristocracy. They used their wealth and influence to keep the politcal waters calm. Representatives from both groups formed a ruling board called the Sanhedrin. For a while the Sanhedrin had ruling power, but when Rome conquered Palestine, the Sanhedrin became like a puppet and functioned with little power. They tried to appease Rome while hating and resenting Rome's rule and control. This is why Jesus was brought to Pilate for execution.
The desire for a political Messiah was strong during the Intertestamental Period. They wanted someone to save them from political powers and establish Israel as a free and independent nation. Yet, God was setting the stage for a suffering servant Messiah who would save His people from their sin. The rise of Hellenism gave the world a common language and a common culture to spread the Messianic message. The Roman Empire brought military peace, an extensive system of roads and sea travel, and a common government so that people could travel extensively without interference and in safety. Also, the Jews are suffering religious persecution and political humilitation so they are longing for a savior. The Lord is preparing the world for Jesus.
At the close of the Old Testament, Jerusalem is ruled by Persia. Alexander the Great defeats the Persians in 333BC and establishes Hellenism (Greek Culture and the Greek language) as a unifying force for that part of the world. The stage is being set for the coming Messiah. When Alexander dies, his generals quarter the kingdom, but Hellenism still grows and remains the dominant influence. This is why we have the Hebrew Scriptures translated into Greek, which is called the Septuagint and why we have the New Testament written in Greek. Greek was the unifying, common language of the people. Even though during this time, Rome conquers this part of the world, Hellenism still thrives.
Throughout the four hundred Silent years, there are militant Jews who attempt to revolt against foreign rule and make Jerusalem and the surrounding area of Judea an independent country. These militant groups were the Maccabeans and the Zealots. Some of their accounts are recorded in the apocrypha. The Maccabean revolt itself involved many battles, in which the Maccabean forces gained notoriety among the Syrian army for their use of guerrilla tactics. After the victory, the Maccabees entered Jerusalem in triumph and ritually cleansed the Temple, reestablishing traditional Jewish worship there and installing Jonathan Maccabee as high priest. A large Syrian army was sent to quash the revolt, but returned to Syria on the death of Antiochus IV. Its commander Lysias, preoccupied with internal Syrian affairs, agreed to a political compromise that restored religious freedom. The Jewish festival of Hanukkah celebrates the re-dedication of the Temple following Judah Maccabee's victory over the Seleucids (Syrians).
Two primary religious groups emerged at this time: the Pharisees and the Sadducees. They were caught up in promoting a religious "legalism" of external adherence to rules while overlooking inner motivations and attitudes. The Pharisee were so concerned about keeping the Law that they made laws about laws about laws; it is a practice known as fencing the Torah. They forgot the heart and purpose of the Law. The Pharisees are orthodox, conservatives, and fostered separation between themselves and secular society. The Sadducees were more liberal and consisted of Jerusalem aristocracy. They used their wealth and influence to keep the politcal waters calm. Representatives from both groups formed a ruling board called the Sanhedrin. For a while the Sanhedrin had ruling power, but when Rome conquered Palestine, the Sanhedrin became like a puppet and functioned with little power. They tried to appease Rome while hating and resenting Rome's rule and control. This is why Jesus was brought to Pilate for execution.
The desire for a political Messiah was strong during the Intertestamental Period. They wanted someone to save them from political powers and establish Israel as a free and independent nation. Yet, God was setting the stage for a suffering servant Messiah who would save His people from their sin. The rise of Hellenism gave the world a common language and a common culture to spread the Messianic message. The Roman Empire brought military peace, an extensive system of roads and sea travel, and a common government so that people could travel extensively without interference and in safety. Also, the Jews are suffering religious persecution and political humilitation so they are longing for a savior. The Lord is preparing the world for Jesus.
Point of Interest: Prophetic Books
In recent history, the Prophetical Books have had two designations: major prophets and minor prophets. The major prophets are the first five: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Ezekiel, and Daniel. The minor prophets are the remaining twelve. The major prophets are "major" because they are longer books while the others are "minor" because they are shorter.
They are divided into three chronological periods: Pre-Exile, Exile, and Post-Exile.
Pre-Exile
To Israel: To Judah: To Assyria: To Edom:
Hosea Habakkuk Jonah Obadiah
Amos Isaiah Nahum
Jeremiah
Joel
Micah
Zephaniah
Lamentations
Exile from Babylonia:
Ezekiel
Daniel
Post-Exile to Jerusalem:
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Twelve of the prophetical books were written during the time covered in the book of 2 Kings, which records the decline of the nations of Israel and Judah. The primary message of the prophets was to the nations to stop sinning and return to the Lord. Ezekiel and Daniel minister during the time of the Exile in Babylonia, and Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi minister during the time of the return.
They are divided into three chronological periods: Pre-Exile, Exile, and Post-Exile.
Pre-Exile
To Israel: To Judah: To Assyria: To Edom:
Hosea Habakkuk Jonah Obadiah
Amos Isaiah Nahum
Jeremiah
Joel
Micah
Zephaniah
Lamentations
Exile from Babylonia:
Ezekiel
Daniel
Post-Exile to Jerusalem:
Haggai
Zechariah
Malachi
Twelve of the prophetical books were written during the time covered in the book of 2 Kings, which records the decline of the nations of Israel and Judah. The primary message of the prophets was to the nations to stop sinning and return to the Lord. Ezekiel and Daniel minister during the time of the Exile in Babylonia, and Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi minister during the time of the return.
Thursday, February 11, 2010
Point of Interest: Insights from the Language
The creation of humanity is the pinnacle and highlight of Genesis 1 and 2. As God spoke things into existence, he said that it was good, and in Genesis 1:22, He blessed the living creatures and gave them a command to be fruitful, multiply, and fill the waters and the earth. But, in Genesis 1:28 when God created man, He blessed them and said “to them” be fruitful, multiply, fill the earth, and subdue it and have dominion over all living things. This little preposition “to” shows that we were created to be in relationship with our Creator. God spoke “to” us.
As the creation account grows more specific in Genesis 2 and focuses on the creation of man and women, we see some interesting relationships in the names. In Gen. 2, we are introduced to Adam. His name in the Hebrew is transliterated as ADAM, and it shows up in 2:7 even though the English does not distinguish between the use of “man” in the verse. The first time it appears it is “ISH” which is translated man, and the second time “man” appears it is “ADAM” which can also be translated man. The beauty in this verse is the relationship that exists between man “ADAM” and the ground (red clay) “ADAMAH”. “ADAM” was created from the “ADAMAH” as a potter would fashion clay. God was hands-on when He created man. Another interesting relationship that exists in the language is the connection between “man” and “woman.” In Gen. 2:23, we see the woman taken out of the man. The words that are used in this special relationship reveal that “ISHAH” is taken from “ISH.” Again, just from the language, we see some very special relationship that God created in the very beginning and how we are a people of relationships.
As the creation account grows more specific in Genesis 2 and focuses on the creation of man and women, we see some interesting relationships in the names. In Gen. 2, we are introduced to Adam. His name in the Hebrew is transliterated as ADAM, and it shows up in 2:7 even though the English does not distinguish between the use of “man” in the verse. The first time it appears it is “ISH” which is translated man, and the second time “man” appears it is “ADAM” which can also be translated man. The beauty in this verse is the relationship that exists between man “ADAM” and the ground (red clay) “ADAMAH”. “ADAM” was created from the “ADAMAH” as a potter would fashion clay. God was hands-on when He created man. Another interesting relationship that exists in the language is the connection between “man” and “woman.” In Gen. 2:23, we see the woman taken out of the man. The words that are used in this special relationship reveal that “ISHAH” is taken from “ISH.” Again, just from the language, we see some very special relationship that God created in the very beginning and how we are a people of relationships.
The Story of the Old Testament
WEEK 3
This week we looked at the overarching history of the Old Testament, the storyline of the Hebrew people. We began with Creation (Creation, Fall, Flood, Babel), Patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph), Exodus (Moses, Deliverance, The Law, Kadesh Barnea, 40 years of wandering), Conquest (Joshua, Jordon, Jericho, National Conquests, Tribal Conquest and Dominion), Judges (Judges, Rebellion, Behavior Cycle, Ruth), Kingdom (United Kingdom, Divided Kingdom, Northern Kingdom - Israel, Southern Kingdom – Judah), Exile (Prophecy, Prophets Ezekiel and Daniel, Exiles, World Power Change), Return (Disrepair, Temple, People, Walls), and Silent Years (The Changing Guard, Political Sects, Religious Sect, Messianic Hopes). As we talked about these major catagories, we began to hang more detail onto each of these areas.
The Conquest begins with the Book of Joshua, and it begins with a change of leadership. Moses is allowed to look into the Promise Land but not enter into it because of his disobedience of striking the rock instead of speaking to it. But, in Deut. 7:1-5, Moses had given the people instructions on how to go into the Promise Land. He said that they should destroy the inhabitants of Canaan (Promise Land), avoid intermarriage, and shun worship of Canaanite gods (destroy their idols), or else they and their children would be led astray from serving the Lord. We see this come to place as we follow the Hebrew people through the conquest and judges. They were not obedient to the Lord and ultimately forgot the Lord (Judges 2:6-15). Joshua, who has been the military leader of the people, now becomes the main leader stepping in after Moses’ death. AS the people enter the land, the first obstacle is the Jordon which is at flood stage. By faith, the people have to go forward. The Lord instructs them to step into the Jordon with Ark and as soon as they do the waters part. The Lord made the way possible when the people responded in obedience and took a step of faith. The first major battle was at Jericho, and the Lord gave instructions that would cause a military man to scratch his head – walk around the walls and blow the trumpets. The point is that the Lord gives the victory and fights for His people. But, after the walls came down, one man was not obedient to the Lord’s command of not taking any items. Because of this disobedience, the Israelites suffered defeat at Ai, a small city. The sin was located and the whole family punished by death. As the conquest continues, Joshua cuts through the midsection of the land dividing it, and he begins to conquer from the South to the North. In about seven years, we see the initial defeat of Canaan. After that, the tribes are given land in which to claim dominion and to finish conquering, and we see a loose federation of tribes develop.
The Judges takes us into this federation of tribes as we see God raising up deliverers (judges) to rescue the people from oppression. These judges were political/military leaders who were raised up for a season for a particular purpose. The people fall into a cycle of rebellion and deliverance – they sin – God disciplines them – they repent and cry out to God – God raises up a Deliverer –and God uses the Deliverer (Judges) to free the people from oppression for the life of the Judge. Judges 2 and 21:25 give a good description of the time of the judges.
This week we looked at the overarching history of the Old Testament, the storyline of the Hebrew people. We began with Creation (Creation, Fall, Flood, Babel), Patriarchs (Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph), Exodus (Moses, Deliverance, The Law, Kadesh Barnea, 40 years of wandering), Conquest (Joshua, Jordon, Jericho, National Conquests, Tribal Conquest and Dominion), Judges (Judges, Rebellion, Behavior Cycle, Ruth), Kingdom (United Kingdom, Divided Kingdom, Northern Kingdom - Israel, Southern Kingdom – Judah), Exile (Prophecy, Prophets Ezekiel and Daniel, Exiles, World Power Change), Return (Disrepair, Temple, People, Walls), and Silent Years (The Changing Guard, Political Sects, Religious Sect, Messianic Hopes). As we talked about these major catagories, we began to hang more detail onto each of these areas.
The Conquest begins with the Book of Joshua, and it begins with a change of leadership. Moses is allowed to look into the Promise Land but not enter into it because of his disobedience of striking the rock instead of speaking to it. But, in Deut. 7:1-5, Moses had given the people instructions on how to go into the Promise Land. He said that they should destroy the inhabitants of Canaan (Promise Land), avoid intermarriage, and shun worship of Canaanite gods (destroy their idols), or else they and their children would be led astray from serving the Lord. We see this come to place as we follow the Hebrew people through the conquest and judges. They were not obedient to the Lord and ultimately forgot the Lord (Judges 2:6-15). Joshua, who has been the military leader of the people, now becomes the main leader stepping in after Moses’ death. AS the people enter the land, the first obstacle is the Jordon which is at flood stage. By faith, the people have to go forward. The Lord instructs them to step into the Jordon with Ark and as soon as they do the waters part. The Lord made the way possible when the people responded in obedience and took a step of faith. The first major battle was at Jericho, and the Lord gave instructions that would cause a military man to scratch his head – walk around the walls and blow the trumpets. The point is that the Lord gives the victory and fights for His people. But, after the walls came down, one man was not obedient to the Lord’s command of not taking any items. Because of this disobedience, the Israelites suffered defeat at Ai, a small city. The sin was located and the whole family punished by death. As the conquest continues, Joshua cuts through the midsection of the land dividing it, and he begins to conquer from the South to the North. In about seven years, we see the initial defeat of Canaan. After that, the tribes are given land in which to claim dominion and to finish conquering, and we see a loose federation of tribes develop.
The Judges takes us into this federation of tribes as we see God raising up deliverers (judges) to rescue the people from oppression. These judges were political/military leaders who were raised up for a season for a particular purpose. The people fall into a cycle of rebellion and deliverance – they sin – God disciplines them – they repent and cry out to God – God raises up a Deliverer –and God uses the Deliverer (Judges) to free the people from oppression for the life of the Judge. Judges 2 and 21:25 give a good description of the time of the judges.
Wednesday, February 3, 2010
Point of Interest: Background to the Language of the Old Testament
OLD TESTAMENT LANGUAGES: THE SEMITIC FAMILY
Two important language groups trace their origins to the descendants of Noah: Shem and Ham. On the basis of phonological and morphological features that they share, Semitic and Hamitic languages are thought by many scholars to be related through a hypothetical common ancestor, Hamito-Semitic. To the Hamitic group, which is essentially North African, belong Egyptian (called Coptic after the third century of the Christian era), the Berber dialects of North Africa, and various Cushitic dialects spoken along the upper Nile. Coptic is the language used in the liturgy of the early Christian church in Egypt. South of the Sahara languages are usually classified into three main divisions: Sudanese, Bantu, and Hottentot and Bushman. The Semitic group of languages includes four divisions.2
The Eastern Division Akkadian, called Assyrian in the periods of the oldest texts, and later Babylonian are spokesmen of this division. Akkadian was the common language of all Southwest Asia during the height of the Old Babylonian and Assyrian empires, a fact evidenced by the Amarna Letters, which were sent by petty kings in Syria and Palestine to the Pharaohs in Egypt around 1400–1360 B.C. These languages are not used in the Old Testament.
The Southern Division This division has two major languages: Arabic and Ethiopic. Neither of those languages is used in the Old Testament. Ethiopic was the language of Ethiopia (Cush), a country referred to in each section of the Old Testament (cf. Gen. 10:7–8; Isa. 45:14; Ps. 68:31). Arabic is the most widely spoken Semitic language in the modern world, being spoken by large numbers of people over a vast area. In the sixteenth century Arabic became the official language of Egypt.
The Northern Division Amorite and Aramaic,3 which was the language of Jesus and the disciples, are representatives of the northern division. The Amorites inhabited Palestine before and during Israel’s occupation (cf. Gen. 10:16; 15:16; Deut. 7:1; Josh. 10:6; 2 Chron. 8:7), but their language was not used in the writing of the Old Testament. Aramaic, the language of the Syrians, appears in all three sections of the Old Testament either in writing or in place names (cf. Gen. 10:22; 31:47; 2 Kings 8:26; Ezra 4:7–6:1; 7:12–26; Isa. 36:11; Jer. 10:11; Dan. 2:4–7:28).
The Northwest Division This division of the Semitic family includes the Canaanite subdivision as well as Aramaic elements, and is represented by four dialects: Ugaritic, Phoenician, Moabite, and Hebrew.
Ugaritic is not used in the Old Testament, but it has been instrumental in further study of the cognate Hebrew language of the Old Testament. It was the language of the Ras Shamra Tablets, discovered in Northern Syria since 1929, which provide another key to the Canaanite dialects.
Phoenician is another important language that was not used in the Old Testament, although Phoenicians are mentioned in all three sections (cf. Gen. 10:8–12; 1 Kings 5:6; Neh. 13:16; Ezek. 27:9; Zeph. 1:11). The contribution of the Phoenicians is a major one, because it was they who introduced the alphabet to other languages,4 thus making writing much less cumbersome than it was for the Akkadians.
Lot’s descendants developed two dialects of Hebrew: Moabite by way of his oldest daughter, and Ammonite by way of the younger. Neither of these languages were used in the Old Testament; however, their nations are referred to repeatedly in all three sections of the Old Testament. The Moabite Stone (c. 850 B.C.) is the first really long inscription in any Canaanite language that has been discovered (found in 1868 at Dibon) and is the account of the Moabite king, Mesha, concerning the revolt mentioned in 2 Kings 1:1; 3:4–27.
Hebrew is by far the most important language of the Old Testament.5 Most of the Old Testament is written in it, and it is called “Judean” (2 Kings 18:26, 28), as well as “the language of Canaan” (Isa. 19:18). Except for the portions mentioned above (cf. Aramaic in particular), the Old Testament was written in Hebrew. During its long history, Hebrew has developed into the Biblical, Mishnaic, Rabbinic, Medieval, and Modern dialects.
Geisler, N. L., & Nix, W. E. (1996). A general introduction to the Bible (Rev. and expanded.) (324–326). Chicago: Moody Press.
Two important language groups trace their origins to the descendants of Noah: Shem and Ham. On the basis of phonological and morphological features that they share, Semitic and Hamitic languages are thought by many scholars to be related through a hypothetical common ancestor, Hamito-Semitic. To the Hamitic group, which is essentially North African, belong Egyptian (called Coptic after the third century of the Christian era), the Berber dialects of North Africa, and various Cushitic dialects spoken along the upper Nile. Coptic is the language used in the liturgy of the early Christian church in Egypt. South of the Sahara languages are usually classified into three main divisions: Sudanese, Bantu, and Hottentot and Bushman. The Semitic group of languages includes four divisions.2
The Eastern Division Akkadian, called Assyrian in the periods of the oldest texts, and later Babylonian are spokesmen of this division. Akkadian was the common language of all Southwest Asia during the height of the Old Babylonian and Assyrian empires, a fact evidenced by the Amarna Letters, which were sent by petty kings in Syria and Palestine to the Pharaohs in Egypt around 1400–1360 B.C. These languages are not used in the Old Testament.
The Southern Division This division has two major languages: Arabic and Ethiopic. Neither of those languages is used in the Old Testament. Ethiopic was the language of Ethiopia (Cush), a country referred to in each section of the Old Testament (cf. Gen. 10:7–8; Isa. 45:14; Ps. 68:31). Arabic is the most widely spoken Semitic language in the modern world, being spoken by large numbers of people over a vast area. In the sixteenth century Arabic became the official language of Egypt.
The Northern Division Amorite and Aramaic,3 which was the language of Jesus and the disciples, are representatives of the northern division. The Amorites inhabited Palestine before and during Israel’s occupation (cf. Gen. 10:16; 15:16; Deut. 7:1; Josh. 10:6; 2 Chron. 8:7), but their language was not used in the writing of the Old Testament. Aramaic, the language of the Syrians, appears in all three sections of the Old Testament either in writing or in place names (cf. Gen. 10:22; 31:47; 2 Kings 8:26; Ezra 4:7–6:1; 7:12–26; Isa. 36:11; Jer. 10:11; Dan. 2:4–7:28).
The Northwest Division This division of the Semitic family includes the Canaanite subdivision as well as Aramaic elements, and is represented by four dialects: Ugaritic, Phoenician, Moabite, and Hebrew.
Ugaritic is not used in the Old Testament, but it has been instrumental in further study of the cognate Hebrew language of the Old Testament. It was the language of the Ras Shamra Tablets, discovered in Northern Syria since 1929, which provide another key to the Canaanite dialects.
Phoenician is another important language that was not used in the Old Testament, although Phoenicians are mentioned in all three sections (cf. Gen. 10:8–12; 1 Kings 5:6; Neh. 13:16; Ezek. 27:9; Zeph. 1:11). The contribution of the Phoenicians is a major one, because it was they who introduced the alphabet to other languages,4 thus making writing much less cumbersome than it was for the Akkadians.
Lot’s descendants developed two dialects of Hebrew: Moabite by way of his oldest daughter, and Ammonite by way of the younger. Neither of these languages were used in the Old Testament; however, their nations are referred to repeatedly in all three sections of the Old Testament. The Moabite Stone (c. 850 B.C.) is the first really long inscription in any Canaanite language that has been discovered (found in 1868 at Dibon) and is the account of the Moabite king, Mesha, concerning the revolt mentioned in 2 Kings 1:1; 3:4–27.
Hebrew is by far the most important language of the Old Testament.5 Most of the Old Testament is written in it, and it is called “Judean” (2 Kings 18:26, 28), as well as “the language of Canaan” (Isa. 19:18). Except for the portions mentioned above (cf. Aramaic in particular), the Old Testament was written in Hebrew. During its long history, Hebrew has developed into the Biblical, Mishnaic, Rabbinic, Medieval, and Modern dialects.
Geisler, N. L., & Nix, W. E. (1996). A general introduction to the Bible (Rev. and expanded.) (324–326). Chicago: Moody Press.
Tuesday, February 2, 2010
Geography of the Old Testament
Key Landmarks
Legend:
A - Eden? 1 - Mediterranean Sea
B - Israel, Canaan, Promise Land 2 - Sea of Galilee
C - Jerusalem 3 - Jordon River
D - Egypt 4 - Dead Sea
E - Assyria 5 - Nile River
F - Babylonia 6 - Tigris River
G - Persia 7 - Euphrates River
8 - Persian GulfThe Biblical Landscape covers an area approximately the size of Texas.
Looking at the Structure of the Old Testament
Session 2 Notes
In this session, we will consider the overall structure of the Bible. Imagine a closet, what do we need to begin to hang clothes in it? … a closet, a rack or system to hang clothes on, hangers, clothes … In this session, we will begin putting together a system or structure on which we can begin to hang more detail.
The Bible is a biblos, a single book. It has two Testaments, better called covenants or agreements between God and His people. Those two parts of the Bible are inseparably related: the New Testament is in the Old concealed, and the Old is in the New revealed.
Down through the centuries the Bible has been subdivided into sections and has had several different arrangements of its books. The Hebrew Bible came to have a threefold division (Law, Prophets, and Writings), so categorized according to the official position of the writer. (Jesus makes reference to the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings in Luke 24:44.) However, beginning with the Septuagint (Greek translation of the Hebrew Scripture in the third century BC also known as LXX) and continuing in the Latin and modern English translations, the Old Testament has been given a fourfold topical structure. The New Testament was also given a fourfold topical arrangement of Gospels, Acts, Epistles, and Revelation.
When viewed carefully, those sections of the Bible are obviously not arbitrarily put together. Instead, they form a meaningful and purposeful whole, as they convey the progressive unfolding of the theme of the Bible in the person of Christ. The law gives the foundation for Christ, history shows the preparation for Him. In poetry there is an aspiration for Christ and in prophecy an expectation of Him. The Gospels of the New Testament record the historical manifestation of Christ, the Acts relate the propagation of Christ, the Epistles give the interpretation of Him, and in Revelation is found the consummation of all things in Christ.
Our Familiar Division of the Books of the Bible (which came from the Septuagint).
Old Testament:
The Law (Torah)
The first five books of the Bible which were written by Moses.
Historical
Wisdom
Prophets (Major and Minor)
The length of the book determines whether a prophet is major or minor.
New Testament:
Gospels
Acts (History)
Epistles
They are divided by Pauline Epistles and General Epistles. These epistles (letters) were written to churches or individuals.
Revelation (Prophecy)
Focusing on the Old Testament
In the Old Testament, the books of the law lay the foundation for Christ in that they reveal how God chose (Genesis), redeemed (Exodus), sanctified (Leviticus), guided (Numbers), and instructed (Deuteronomy) the Hebrew nation, through whom He was to bless all nations (Gen. 2:1–3). The historical books illustrate how the nation was being prepared to carry out its redemptive mission. In order for the chosen nation to be fully prepared for the task, it had to conquer its land (Joshua-Ruth), to be established under its first king, Saul (1 Samuel), and later to expand its empire under David and Solomon (2 Samuel–1 Kings 10). After Solomon’s reign, the kingdom was divided (1 Kings 11ff.) and later deported to Assyria (721 b.c.) and Babylonia (586 b.c., 2 Kings). However, redemptive hopes were not lost, for God protected and preserved His people (Esther) so He could cause them to return (Ezra) and their holy city to be rebuilt (Nehemiah).
In the law the foundation is laid for Christ; in the historical books the nation takes root in preparation for Christ; in the poetical books the people look up in aspiration for Christ; in the prophetical books they look forward in expectation of Christ. The law views the moral life of Israel, history records their national life, poetry reveals their spiritual life, and prophecy depicts their prophetical or Messianic life and expectations.
In this session, we will consider the overall structure of the Bible. Imagine a closet, what do we need to begin to hang clothes in it? … a closet, a rack or system to hang clothes on, hangers, clothes … In this session, we will begin putting together a system or structure on which we can begin to hang more detail.
The Bible is a biblos, a single book. It has two Testaments, better called covenants or agreements between God and His people. Those two parts of the Bible are inseparably related: the New Testament is in the Old concealed, and the Old is in the New revealed.
Down through the centuries the Bible has been subdivided into sections and has had several different arrangements of its books. The Hebrew Bible came to have a threefold division (Law, Prophets, and Writings), so categorized according to the official position of the writer. (Jesus makes reference to the Law, the Prophets, and the Writings in Luke 24:44.) However, beginning with the Septuagint (Greek translation of the Hebrew Scripture in the third century BC also known as LXX) and continuing in the Latin and modern English translations, the Old Testament has been given a fourfold topical structure. The New Testament was also given a fourfold topical arrangement of Gospels, Acts, Epistles, and Revelation.
When viewed carefully, those sections of the Bible are obviously not arbitrarily put together. Instead, they form a meaningful and purposeful whole, as they convey the progressive unfolding of the theme of the Bible in the person of Christ. The law gives the foundation for Christ, history shows the preparation for Him. In poetry there is an aspiration for Christ and in prophecy an expectation of Him. The Gospels of the New Testament record the historical manifestation of Christ, the Acts relate the propagation of Christ, the Epistles give the interpretation of Him, and in Revelation is found the consummation of all things in Christ.
Our Familiar Division of the Books of the Bible (which came from the Septuagint).
Old Testament:
The Law (Torah)
The first five books of the Bible which were written by Moses.
Historical
Wisdom
Prophets (Major and Minor)
The length of the book determines whether a prophet is major or minor.
New Testament:
Gospels
Acts (History)
Epistles
They are divided by Pauline Epistles and General Epistles. These epistles (letters) were written to churches or individuals.
Revelation (Prophecy)
Focusing on the Old Testament
In the Old Testament, the books of the law lay the foundation for Christ in that they reveal how God chose (Genesis), redeemed (Exodus), sanctified (Leviticus), guided (Numbers), and instructed (Deuteronomy) the Hebrew nation, through whom He was to bless all nations (Gen. 2:1–3). The historical books illustrate how the nation was being prepared to carry out its redemptive mission. In order for the chosen nation to be fully prepared for the task, it had to conquer its land (Joshua-Ruth), to be established under its first king, Saul (1 Samuel), and later to expand its empire under David and Solomon (2 Samuel–1 Kings 10). After Solomon’s reign, the kingdom was divided (1 Kings 11ff.) and later deported to Assyria (721 b.c.) and Babylonia (586 b.c., 2 Kings). However, redemptive hopes were not lost, for God protected and preserved His people (Esther) so He could cause them to return (Ezra) and their holy city to be rebuilt (Nehemiah).
In the law the foundation is laid for Christ; in the historical books the nation takes root in preparation for Christ; in the poetical books the people look up in aspiration for Christ; in the prophetical books they look forward in expectation of Christ. The law views the moral life of Israel, history records their national life, poetry reveals their spiritual life, and prophecy depicts their prophetical or Messianic life and expectations.
The Big Picture
A BIBLE MAP
Session 2 Notes
As tourists need maps to avoid getting lost in foreign cities, Bible readers need a map to keep from getting lost between the books of Genesis and Revelation. They need to see how the whole Bible is laid out—how Scripture’s main freeways interconnect with its smaller streets and avenues. Although a child may recognize the houses where he and his grandparents live, he may not know how to get from one to the other. Likewise, Bible readers may know one Bible book here and another there, but have no real sense of how the one is connected to the other. How does Genesis lead to 1 and 2 Samuel? Or how are 1 and 2 Chronicles crucial for understanding Matthew? The books of Scripture are extremely diverse, yet in their diversity, they form a unified whole that reveals God’s amazing work to save and redeem mankind. The Concise Bible Commentary will provide a bird’s eye view of the Bible, recognizing the diversity of its individual books and revealing how its diverse parts form a wonderful unity.
DIVERSITY WITHIN THE BIBLE
Different authors. The Bible was finished nearly two thousand years ago. Many different human authors wrote it over a period covering at least fifteen hundred years and including three different languages (Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek). During that long period, history and culture changed radically—from the time of Moses, writing some fourteen hundred years before Christ, to the time of the apostle John, writing in the Roman Empire around A.D. 80. In addition to different cultures and languages, the Biblical writers had their own different personalities and abilities. Moses was a prince of ancient Egypt—Matthew was a Roman tax collector. Solomon lived securely in a palace—Ezekiel was a prisoner of war. Paul was highly educated—Peter was an unschooled fisherman.
Different purposes. Each Bible book was written with its own specific purpose in mind. Each author wrote to meet specific needs. He selected, under God’s guidance, appropriate truths that matched the particular needs of God’s people at that time. Therefore, many different needs and situations are represented from book to book: announcements of God’s discipline, loving God for his redemption, the problem of family hatred and jealousy, wandering in the desert, wars with the Philistines, captivity in Babylon, church squabbles, and dealing with personal sin. Some books were written to individuals, others to large groups. Some were for singing, while others were poetry or narrative to be read aloud. Some were written to bring correction, while others were for information or historical record.
Different topics. Because the purposes differ from book to book, so does the subject matter. God did not present his Word in long and organized lists of simple principles for living, detached from real people and their ancient historical situations. He wrapped his truths in greatly varied everyday history, language, and life. God gave us his truth in ancient books like Exodus, Joshua, Malachi, Romans, and 1 and 2 Peter. He did not give us books like 1 and 2 Thought Life or The Epistle To Parents. God’s principles and truth are embedded in the events of God’s salvation history and the diverse experiences of God’s people.
Neither life nor God’s truth comes in a neat, self-contained package. Just as our daily experiences contain diverse situations and needs, the books from Genesis to Revelation contain a diverse presentation of truth; the Bible is not a systematized card file of questions and answers. Its diversity is important to consider when interpreting and applying the Bible. God presented his eternal truth in the context of communities and people with concerns and needs defined by distant places and cultures. Thus, Bible readers cannot ignore the various cultures and situations of the Biblical text. Part of the task of interpreting the Bible is to see how its ancient context actually sharpens and clarifies its message. Seeing how God’s truth helped ancient people in the struggles of their varied lives shows how we can apply the same truths today. Understanding the diversity of the Bible’s message and context is vital to properly interpreting and applying Scripture.
Different relevance. Becoming aware of the Bible’s diversity may cause us to make a mistake. We may tend to ignore those parts of the Bible that seem strange or difficult to apply. When we read the New Testament, especially Paul’s letters, God seems to be speaking directly to us. But in the Old Testament we may find it difficult to apply things like bloody battles, ancient rituals, and long genealogies. In the face of the Bible’s strangeness, it is possible that we may read only the New Testament—and just parts of it, at that. But such a neglect of the difficult and culturally distant parts of Scripture is wrong. To correct this neglect that grows out of the Bible’s cultural distance and diversity, we need to look to another truth—the Bible’s essential unity.
THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE
But how do the various books of the Bible fit together? Although the Bible was written book by book over a period of around fifteen hundred years, the end result is a single work, each part of which contributes perfectly to the whole. Therefore, it is not enough to study only a book here or there. The Bible should be understood as a logically ordered whole, moving from Genesis through Revelation. Although there are many different historical contexts and human authors in the Bible, God is the unifying author behind it all. Behind each diverse passage of Scripture stands our unchanging God. Behind the Bible’s many human authors stands the single divine Author. And he is the real solution to the needs of the people in the Bible and those living today. Since God intended for the diverse books of Scripture to fit together as a unified whole, the interrelationships of the various books are significant for understanding God’s revelation as a whole.
It would be somewhat odd to begin reading a current best-seller in the middle of the fifth chapter, skip to the last chapter, and then go back and read the end of the third chapter. Although a reader could make some sense of what he had read, he would not have an accurate picture of what the book was all about. The reader would have to see why the chapters were arranged in their present order and how each chapter fit into the entire book. Likewise, Bible readers need to determine how each Bible book fits into Scripture as a whole. Then they will be able to understand how the Bible’s development has resulted in a beautiful and cohesive whole, from Genesis through Revelation, that meets the practical needs of believers.
Hughes, R. B., & Laney, J. C. (2001). Tyndale concise Bible commentary. The Tyndale reference library (xii–xv). Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House Publishers.
Session 2 Notes
As tourists need maps to avoid getting lost in foreign cities, Bible readers need a map to keep from getting lost between the books of Genesis and Revelation. They need to see how the whole Bible is laid out—how Scripture’s main freeways interconnect with its smaller streets and avenues. Although a child may recognize the houses where he and his grandparents live, he may not know how to get from one to the other. Likewise, Bible readers may know one Bible book here and another there, but have no real sense of how the one is connected to the other. How does Genesis lead to 1 and 2 Samuel? Or how are 1 and 2 Chronicles crucial for understanding Matthew? The books of Scripture are extremely diverse, yet in their diversity, they form a unified whole that reveals God’s amazing work to save and redeem mankind. The Concise Bible Commentary will provide a bird’s eye view of the Bible, recognizing the diversity of its individual books and revealing how its diverse parts form a wonderful unity.
DIVERSITY WITHIN THE BIBLE
Different authors. The Bible was finished nearly two thousand years ago. Many different human authors wrote it over a period covering at least fifteen hundred years and including three different languages (Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek). During that long period, history and culture changed radically—from the time of Moses, writing some fourteen hundred years before Christ, to the time of the apostle John, writing in the Roman Empire around A.D. 80. In addition to different cultures and languages, the Biblical writers had their own different personalities and abilities. Moses was a prince of ancient Egypt—Matthew was a Roman tax collector. Solomon lived securely in a palace—Ezekiel was a prisoner of war. Paul was highly educated—Peter was an unschooled fisherman.
Different purposes. Each Bible book was written with its own specific purpose in mind. Each author wrote to meet specific needs. He selected, under God’s guidance, appropriate truths that matched the particular needs of God’s people at that time. Therefore, many different needs and situations are represented from book to book: announcements of God’s discipline, loving God for his redemption, the problem of family hatred and jealousy, wandering in the desert, wars with the Philistines, captivity in Babylon, church squabbles, and dealing with personal sin. Some books were written to individuals, others to large groups. Some were for singing, while others were poetry or narrative to be read aloud. Some were written to bring correction, while others were for information or historical record.
Different topics. Because the purposes differ from book to book, so does the subject matter. God did not present his Word in long and organized lists of simple principles for living, detached from real people and their ancient historical situations. He wrapped his truths in greatly varied everyday history, language, and life. God gave us his truth in ancient books like Exodus, Joshua, Malachi, Romans, and 1 and 2 Peter. He did not give us books like 1 and 2 Thought Life or The Epistle To Parents. God’s principles and truth are embedded in the events of God’s salvation history and the diverse experiences of God’s people.
Neither life nor God’s truth comes in a neat, self-contained package. Just as our daily experiences contain diverse situations and needs, the books from Genesis to Revelation contain a diverse presentation of truth; the Bible is not a systematized card file of questions and answers. Its diversity is important to consider when interpreting and applying the Bible. God presented his eternal truth in the context of communities and people with concerns and needs defined by distant places and cultures. Thus, Bible readers cannot ignore the various cultures and situations of the Biblical text. Part of the task of interpreting the Bible is to see how its ancient context actually sharpens and clarifies its message. Seeing how God’s truth helped ancient people in the struggles of their varied lives shows how we can apply the same truths today. Understanding the diversity of the Bible’s message and context is vital to properly interpreting and applying Scripture.
Different relevance. Becoming aware of the Bible’s diversity may cause us to make a mistake. We may tend to ignore those parts of the Bible that seem strange or difficult to apply. When we read the New Testament, especially Paul’s letters, God seems to be speaking directly to us. But in the Old Testament we may find it difficult to apply things like bloody battles, ancient rituals, and long genealogies. In the face of the Bible’s strangeness, it is possible that we may read only the New Testament—and just parts of it, at that. But such a neglect of the difficult and culturally distant parts of Scripture is wrong. To correct this neglect that grows out of the Bible’s cultural distance and diversity, we need to look to another truth—the Bible’s essential unity.
THE UNITY OF THE BIBLE
But how do the various books of the Bible fit together? Although the Bible was written book by book over a period of around fifteen hundred years, the end result is a single work, each part of which contributes perfectly to the whole. Therefore, it is not enough to study only a book here or there. The Bible should be understood as a logically ordered whole, moving from Genesis through Revelation. Although there are many different historical contexts and human authors in the Bible, God is the unifying author behind it all. Behind each diverse passage of Scripture stands our unchanging God. Behind the Bible’s many human authors stands the single divine Author. And he is the real solution to the needs of the people in the Bible and those living today. Since God intended for the diverse books of Scripture to fit together as a unified whole, the interrelationships of the various books are significant for understanding God’s revelation as a whole.
It would be somewhat odd to begin reading a current best-seller in the middle of the fifth chapter, skip to the last chapter, and then go back and read the end of the third chapter. Although a reader could make some sense of what he had read, he would not have an accurate picture of what the book was all about. The reader would have to see why the chapters were arranged in their present order and how each chapter fit into the entire book. Likewise, Bible readers need to determine how each Bible book fits into Scripture as a whole. Then they will be able to understand how the Bible’s development has resulted in a beautiful and cohesive whole, from Genesis through Revelation, that meets the practical needs of believers.
Hughes, R. B., & Laney, J. C. (2001). Tyndale concise Bible commentary. The Tyndale reference library (xii–xv). Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House Publishers.
The Bible's Impact
The Bible is both a book—the world’s best-selling book—and a library of sixty-six books. The impact of the Bible on Western Civilization is enough to spark anyone’s curiosity about its content.
Victor Hugo, author of Les Miserables, observed, “England has two books, the Bible and Shakespeare. England made Shakespeare, but the Bible made England.”
Immanuel Kant, one of the world’s most influential philosophers, said, “The Bible is the greatest benefit which the human race has ever experienced.… A single line in the Bible has consoled me more than all the books I ever read besides.”
President John Quincy Adams treated the Bible as the key education resource in the lives of his children: “So great is my veneration for the Bible that the earlier my children begin to read it, the more confident will be my hope that they will prove useful citizens to their country and respectable members of society.”
Easley, K. H. (2002). Holman QuickSource guide to understanding the Bible (3). Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers.
Victor Hugo, author of Les Miserables, observed, “England has two books, the Bible and Shakespeare. England made Shakespeare, but the Bible made England.”
Immanuel Kant, one of the world’s most influential philosophers, said, “The Bible is the greatest benefit which the human race has ever experienced.… A single line in the Bible has consoled me more than all the books I ever read besides.”
President John Quincy Adams treated the Bible as the key education resource in the lives of his children: “So great is my veneration for the Bible that the earlier my children begin to read it, the more confident will be my hope that they will prove useful citizens to their country and respectable members of society.”
Easley, K. H. (2002). Holman QuickSource guide to understanding the Bible (3). Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers.
Point of Interest: Why is LORD in all caps in some places?
Concerning terms that refer to God in the Old Testament: God, the Maker of heaven and earth, introduced himself to the people of Israel with the special, personal name, whose consonants are YHWH (see Exodus 3:14–15). Scholars call this the “Tetragrammaton,” a Greek term referring to the four Hebrew letters YHWH. The exact pronunciation of YHWH is uncertain, because the Jewish people considered the personal name of God to be so holy that it should never be spoken aloud. Instead of reading the word YHWH, they would normally read the Hebrew word adonai (“Lord”), and the ancient translations into Greek, Syriac, and Aramaic also followed suit. When the vowels of the word adonai are placed with the consonants of YHWH, this results in the familiar word Jehovah that was used in some earlier English Bible translations. As is common among English translations today, this usually renders the personal name of God (YHWH) with the word LORD (printed in small capitals). An exception to this is when the Hebrew word adonai appears together with YHWH, in which case the two words are rendered together as “the Lord [in lower case] God [in small capitals].” In contrast to the personal name for God (YHWH), the more general name for God in Old Testament Hebrew is ʾelohim and its related forms of ʾel or ʾeloah, all of which are normally translated “God” (in lower case letters). The use of these different ways to translate the Hebrew words for God is especially beneficial to the English reader, enabling the reader to see and understand the different ways that the personal name and the general name for God are both used to refer to the One True God of the Old Testament.
The Holy Bible : English Standard Version. 2001. Wheaton: Standard Bible Society.
The Holy Bible : English Standard Version. 2001. Wheaton: Standard Bible Society.
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